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中国水质管理：政策和制度因素 6
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P (TP) and N (TN) increased two- to three-fold.
Th is part of the lake suff ers severe eutrophication
and oxygen depletion.
“Waihai”: COD, TN, and TP pollution is less
severe.
Institutions. Th e Kunming Environmental Protection
Bureau, which is the city-level EPB reporting to the
Kunming city government, and its subsidiary bodies
are responsible for water pollution and quality management,
project implementation, and application of
environmental law around Lake Dianchi. Th e Dianchi
Protection Committee was initially established as
a watershed management authority to enforce the
Dianchi Protection Ordinance, but has since been
strengthened and is now the lead agency for decision
making on major issues concerning lake protection
and treatment. Th e Dianchi Administration Bureau
and the Kunming Dianchi Management Offi ce both
sit on the committee. Th e former is responsible for law
formulation, promulgation, and enforcement, as well
as monitoring impacts and managing funds. Th e latter
consolidates and organizes management activities for
the lake, but this process overlaps somewhat with the
EPB’s role.
Legislation and policy tools. The requirement for
EIAs has generally been well-enforced in the area
and implementation of the emission permits system
has now reached 780 enterprises. A system for the
collection of fees for wastewater drainage and emissions
has been established for large-scale factories, but
the inclusion of small-scale operators has been more
problematic. Supply of water in Kunming is currently
charged at 1.8 Y/M3 (includes a sewerage fee of 0.56
Y/M3), which is very low compared to other areas (4.5
Y/M3 in Beijing). Incentives for water conservation or
re-use are therefore limited and scarce water resources
are signifi cantly overused. Th e charge for sewage costs
is also considered low and has led to underfunding and
closure of wastewater collection and treatment facilities.
Other local initiatives to support lake water quality
have included the banning of phosphorus in detergents
in order to reduce the infl ux of this pollution into
the lake (phosphorus loads are a key element in the
eutrophication process). Th e local government has also
been actively trying to raise public awareness about
the vulnerability of the lake and the need for environmental
protection through media and propaganda
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Figure 2.5. Shallow Lake Management—The Case of
Lake Dianchi
Source: Yunnan Institute of Environmental Science.
events. Finally, there has been extensive engagement
with local industry, with clean production audits in 71
polluting fi rms, and the provision of clean production
training to 242 key enterprises, with more planned in
the future. Th e clean production message seems to be
getting through, as some of the larger fi rms are now
becoming interested in ISO 14000.
Investments. During the 9th fi ve-year plan period
(1995–2000), 65 treatment projects were completed,
including the establishment of four sewerage treatment
facilities with a combined capacity of 365,000 tons/day
(65 percent of wastewater production in Kunming).
However, similar investments were not made in the
sewage pipe network. Collection rates are only around
33 percent, which means that many of the treatment
facilities are either closed or only partially operational.
Delayed implementation meant that much of the
planned work (12
projects, 1.29 bill
RMB) could not be
completed before the
2000–2010 period,
and lake water quality
targets were not met
(in fact, lake water
quality deteriorated).
Pollution management
was a major feature
of the 10th fi ve-year
plan, including 4.2
billion RMB allocated
for 10 pollution management
projects, and
3 billion RMB for investments in municipal pollution
management. However, less than half of the projects
were completed within the fi ve-year period, and many
have only just started. Th e lack of preparatory research
and poor evaluations of completed works have been
sighted as signifi cant shortcomings in the approach.
Initial indications are that the 11th fi ve-year plan
(2005–2010) will include funding for (a) pollution
management, (b) supervision, (c) administration, and
(d) science/technology demonstration. Investments
in municipal pollution management will account
for the largest fraction of the budget. Financing for
these activities has largely been through government
budgets, but increasing attention is now being paid
to options such as build-operate-transfer (BOT)
schemes. However, charges for tap water, drainage,
sewerage, and treatment are universally low and this is
potentially an important area of fi nance.
During the 10th fi ve-year plan period, the central
government outlined its objective that provincial
capitals, including Kunming, should reach a 100
percent wastewater collection rate (sewage) by 2010,
which would ensure full utilization of installed
urban wastewater
treatment capacity.
However, following
strong interventions
from local governments,
including
Kunming city, the
plans had to be
extended to about
2020. Th e extension
of collection systems
into old city areas
and certain outskirts
has a particularly
high investment
cost. Th is means
that the installed
wastewater treatment capacity may hardly be fully
utilized, and by the time a collection system is completed,
certain wastewater treatment plants may have
become outdated. In certain cases, it may have been
more feasible to establish wastewater treatment plants
closer to the users.
Eutrophication in Dianche Lake
– 33 –
3. Toward a Future WPM Policy in China
Introduction
This chapter provides recommendations for
further improvements in water pollution
management in China based on, (a)
analysis set out in the preceding chapters,
(b) dialogue with Chinese counterparts during the
preparation of the study, and (c) experiences from the
complex history of evolution of pollution management
and integrated water
resources management
in other parts
of the world. Th e
recommendations
that we provide are
described at a relatively
generic level.
For more details on
some of the issues,
we refer to the main
(2003) report.
Basic Condition
and Major
Features of Water Management in China
Th ere is no country in the world with the same
institutional structure, the same water-related
problems, or the same economic development pattern
as China. Th us, there is no “model country” to use
as a reference point in establishing an effi cient water
pollution management system. Valuable lessons can
be learned, however, from several countries or regions
where the development of pollution management has
similarities to development in China.
To fi nd potential “model” cases, we noted the following
major features of water pollution management in
China:
Th e country is the size of a continent.
Th e economy of
the country is
developing very
rapidly, resulting in
urbanization and
changed industrial
structure.
Huge regional
variability exists
in the economic
structure.
Huge regional
variability exists in
the availability of
water resources.
In many regions,
serious water
scarcity and water quality issues appear both in
surface water and groundwater.
Coexistence of many pollution problems is typical
for many regions.
Controlling industrial emissions and toxic materials
was initiated relatively early and successfully;
however, industrial pre-treatment is often missing.
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Water treatment in Kunming City
China Water Quality Management
34
Water- and environment-related
laws and decrees are not properly
harmonized and often overlap.
Th e institutional system is
complicated with many levels and
administrative units, both vertically
and horizontally. Th ere is a tendency
to decentralize, but the state still
plays a strong role in pollution
management, particularly through
its role in fi nancing and defi ning
economic principles.
Today, major concerns include (a)
urban pollution management due
to rapid urbanization and the low
level of infrastructure, and (b) the
growing need for emerging agricultural
non-point source pollution
management.
Water quality legislation still focuses
primarily on protective measures,
incorporating tools such as standards,
ambient water quality criteria, fees
and fi nes, total load control etc.
However, there is a lack of integration
between these approaches. Furthermore,
the target for each of these is
often not set properly and thus they
have little or no impact in practice.
Water monitoring and legal enforcement
is weak or lacking.
Huge investments are needed in
water pollution management.
Th e most useful analogy can probably
be found between China and two large,
multi-state or multi-country entities, the
United States and the European Union.
Like China, both are characterized by
the fact that administrative borders do
not coincide with river basin geography,
which implies the need to address shared
water resource issues. Additional experiences
may stem from Central and Eastern
Europe (CEE), which has been going
through tremendous economic transition
during the past fi fteen years (see Box 3.1).
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Box 3.1. Water Pollution Management in Transition
Economies—Experiences from Central and Eastern Europe
CEE countries have gone through unprecedented political, social, economic
and institutional transition during the past fi fteen years. This process enabled
some of them to join the European Union (EU) in 2004. From a water
quality management perspective, this transition was associated with the need to
simultaneously address many diff erent coexisting problems, e.g. point and nonpoint
sources, traditional and toxic contamination, surface and subsurface waters,
and local and regional problems. Most fully developed countries managed these
issues in a step-by-step manner over several decades.
The transition resulted in many changes in the management of water pollution,
particularly:
Market-based pricing led to a drastic reduction in fertilizer application and diffuse
pollution;
Abolishing outdated technologies in industry and introduction of clean technologies
has signifi cantly reduced emissions;
Increased tariff s for water use and wastewater handling have reduced water
consumption.
The combination of these factors has led to remarkable improvements in surface
water quality, highlighting the linkages that exist between economic restructuring
and environmental management.
Municipal emissions largely remained untouched during the transition. However,
increased tariff s for water use led to reductions in public water consumption by 40
to 50 percent. As a consequence, many of the previous hydraulically overloaded municipal
wastewater treatment plants ended up with excess capacity. The changed
(denser) composition of the raw sewage caused serious operational problems.
Lack of industrial pre-treatment was found to be a serious issue. Residence time in
water distribution networks increased signifi cantly, which also resulted in water
quality problems.
During this period, the central issue was how CEE countries could achieve the largest
improvement in the short run, using the scarce fi nancial resources available, and
how they could design a process to ensure further improvements in order to meet
EU requirements and standards. A number of detailed studies led to the proposal
for “step-wise” development with a time horizon of two to three decades. Within
this development process, the fi rst few years should be devoted to identifying
and dealing with priority “hot spot” issues, and applying least-cost water quality
management policies on the river basin scale. The second phase should focus more
on sewer renovation, wastewater treatment plant upgrading, and other developments
to meet EU criteria.
In order to implement the above ideas, it was recommended that policy makers
initially defi ne phased effl uent and ambient standards in harmony with multistage
upgrading and development of wastewater treatment plants, accompanied by
tightening requirements and promoting best management practices in industry
and agriculture.
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Policy and Institutional Considerations
35
Focusing on Strategic Planning
In spite of the extensive eff ort that has gone into
pollution management in the last decades, China still
has a long way to go to handle existing water pollution
problems and to keep pace with new and emerging
issues. Th ere is a clear need for an overall strategic plan
for the coming two to three decades. Th is plan should
be developed with the following elements:
Defi nition of a long term vision for water quality,
including specifi c targets (see Box 3.2);
Identifi cation of sub-periods within the total
time frame, with realistic targets set for each of
these periods. Th e “5-Year Plan” periods may be
considered as suitable “sub-periods.”
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A strategic approach should recognize the need for
a long-term perspective in pollution management.
Realistic targets and time schedules should be set for
pollution reduction and water quality improvement.
Achievable targets are needed, because many of the
required measures will not have a measurable impact
for some time, and institutional actions and legal and
economic changes may take several years to implement.
Ideally, targets—such as percentage of infrastructure
development for urban and rural areas; level of meeting
drinking water quality standards; municipal, industrial
and agricultural emission reductions; water quality
improvements in terms of quality classes; fees collected;
level of cost recovery; and budget for planned investments—
should be quantifi ed.
A change in strategic focus is also envisaged. In previous
periods, the focus has been on industrial pollution
and treatment of municipal wastewater,
particularly aimed at controlling COD
and heavy metals. In the future, water
pollution prevention in China should
pay more attention to nutrients (N and
P) and persistent organic pollutants.
More eff orts will be needed to address
emerging water pollution issues, such as
agricultural pollution and surface runoff .
Th ese new problems will also require
new or modifi ed means and strategies for
policy implementation and enforcement.
With growing levels of urbanization (see
section in chapter 1), there is an increasing
need for municipal wastewater collection
and treatment facilities. In this development
process, all related forms of infrastructure,
e.g. water supply, wastewater,
water and sewer networks, treatment and
reuse facilities, should be seen in connection.
By considering the broader picture,
it is easier to spot and assess imbalances
between the coverage and capacity of
collection and treatment systems.
Phased development is also an important
concept to follow. Th is approach can be
applied on the basis of comprehensive
Box 3.2. The European Union—Water Framework Directive
Since 1975 nearly thirty so-called “daughter directives” have been created by
the European Commission. They defi ne water quality standards for various
substances and uses and cover topics such as drinking water quality, bathing
waters, dangerous substances, municipal wastewater treatment, and integrated
pollution prevention and control. In the 1990s it became apparent that directives
alone would not lead to an integrated water management strategy. Thus the
unifi ed water policy of the EU, the Water Framework Directive (EU-WFD), was approved
in 2000 and is now under implementation in 25 countries.
The EU-WFD establishes a framework for the protection of waters regardless of
national borders with a long-term approach to management. The basic unit for
management is the river basin, which is defi ned as an area of land from which all
surface runoff fl ows into the sea at a single river mouth, estuary, or delta.
The principal concept of the EU-WFD is to ensure the “good” status of waters.
The purpose is to protect and, where possible, to enhance the state of water ecosystems,
the aquatic environment, water quality, and groundwater by a variety
of measures. It is also used to promote sustainable water use and to mitigate the
eff ects of fl oods and droughts.
Cost recovery is one of the main pillars of the EU-WFD. A crucial element in this
approach is to develop plans based on aff ordability that can be implemented.
However, it is not yet clear how this approach will perform in cases where user
groups and benefi ciaries are not well-defi ned (e.g. fl ood control).
A crucial element for implementation of the EU-WFD is the river basin management
plan. This plan addresses major characteristics of a river basin, the various human
activities, monitoring, objectives, and a program of measures. The deadline for the
program is 2015, with reviews and updates every six years thereafter.
China Water Quality Management
36
planning, which systematically identifi es the next steps
through the identifi cation of the most cost-eff ective
priority actions.
Adjusting Policy and Regulations
China has an extensive set of legal instruments
related to water pollution management. However, this
legislation appears unnecessarily complex, with many
areas of duplication and overlap. Improving this legal
structure, particularly by reducing the number of laws
and regulations, would result in a more comprehensive
and simplifi ed system.
Standards are technical instruments used to control
emissions and the receiving water quality. In most
industrialized countries, effl uent standards are
mandatory, with ambient water quality criteria used
for additional “fi ne tuning” and to control non-point
sources. In these countries, total emission control
(TEC) is rarely applied except for lakes, river deltas,
inland seas, and transboundary issues.
Based on international experience, the following
recommendations can be made for improving China’s
WPM legal instruments:
Set basic effl uent and ambient standards for
industries and municipalities, which are to be
implemented over the long run;
Develop embedded river basin, sub-basin, region etc,
water quality management plans as an element of
broader management planning to defi ne hot spots,
priorities and impact driven cost-effi cient actions.
Priorities should be defi ned on the basis of possible
positive multiple impacts on water uses, health,
ecosystems, regional water quality, and others;
On the basis of the aforementioned plans, defi ne
areas that can have diff erent (regionally variable)
effl uent standards and minimum requirements,
which should be gradually tightened over time;
As a fi nal step, make the basic effl uent criteria
mandatory and assign the usual “fi ne-tuning” role
to the ambient criteria.
Integrated Water Resources Management
Th ere is no universal institutional system for integrated
water resource management, even though many diff er-
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ent approaches have been tried. Th e present tendency
is to develop integrated water resource management
(IWRM) projects at the river basin scale. In many
countries, the lead agency has been the environment
ministry; in other cases, new authorities have been
established, which often leads to confl icts with existing
institutions. Overall experience has shown that it has
been diffi cult to establish a management system that is
fully integrated at the institutional level.
China should prepare the legal framework for an
integrated approach to water management and
pollution control (umbrella water legislation). However,
the process of establishing and implementing
such a framework could take decades. Th e umbrella
legislation should accommodate the development of
management plans at the river basin, provincial, and
other levels, as in the United States and EU.
Institutionally, a number of changes may be required.
If SEPA were elevated to a cabinet ministerial level
institution, this would give the same political authority
to the relatively new fi eld of water pollution management
as is the case with the “older” quantity and water
use-related activities.
For the next decade, China should consider shifting
the highest WRM-related responsibility to the State
Council. Th is might be a pre-condition to realizing a
strongly coordinated, subsidiary-based decentralized
system at the lower levels. China’s State Council is
currently preparing for a new round of institutional
reform; institutional restructuring for water management
is an important issue on the agenda. Since this
process will inevitably aff ect the interests of existing
departments, and there is no fi xed model for reform,
the structure indicated here should be considered
indicative only, and further studies and stakeholder
consultation would be required before a fi nal formal
structure could be developed. Th is might lead to the
following division of responsibilities for the two main
actors in water and water quality management:
SEPA to have the leading role on issues related to
water quality and pollution management, including
water quality monitoring, defi nition of water
environmental functional zones, and relationship
with river basin institutions. In these areas, SEPA’s
responsibilities should cover all issues, from policy
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Policy and Institutional Considerations
37
formulation and program implementation to law
enforcement.
MWR to have the overall responsibility for the
quantitative aspects of water resource management,
including hydrological monitoring, water
planning, management of distribution, and
conservation of water.
Close cooperation with SEPA will be needed to
fi nd optimal solutions for water management
issues, especially for developing the river basin
perspective in planning.
An important feature of water resource management
in industrialized countries, independent of
institutional structure or location, is that the authority
for management of utilities is kept separate from,
and has no institutional linkages to, the authority for
control and regulatory functions (be it water pollution
management, quality control, tax control, etc.). Th is
approach is also recommended to be followed in
China. As part of the ongoing reform of water management
and the implementation of the new Water
Act, the roles of respective agencies (SEPA and MWR)
and the departments in charge of construction and
operation of water utilities should be clarifi ed.
Part of the rationale for IWRM is the fact that many
aspects of pollution control cannot be separated
from water resource management, particularly not in
countries, such as China, where scarcity is a problem.
Under such conditions, it is essential to look for ways
to close water and material cycles and increase re-use
and recycling. China has many such opportunities,
primarily in rural areas. Th e “cascade management”
approach should also be considered. Th is implies that
water is used several times and is transferred among
diff erent sectors and use categories (municipal, industrial,
agricultural, etc.), where treatment is performed
only at the level prescribed by the subsequent use.
Th e application of this kind of an approach obviously
infl uences standard setting.
Strengthening Economic Instruments
Fees and fi nes are important instruments in pollution
management. Fines are supposed to penalize emitters
for discharging wastewater of a volume or concentration
violating effl uent standards. Fees are taxes based
on well-defi ned economic principles, normally set
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equal to or just above the marginal cost of wastewater
treatment, so that treatment becomes more economical
than pollution. Th e reasons for both measures are to
avoid social damage and excess profi ts for polluting
entities at the expense of society.
If a system for Total Load Control is used together
with trading of discharge permits (e.g. for managing
a lake eutrophication problem), fees should not be
applied, since they would contradict the principle of
trading.
In the development of a future Chinese fee and fi ne
system, the following principles should be considered:
Fees and fi nes should be introduced gradually in
parallel with the development of the water quality
standards and ambient criteria;
Fines should be highest for discharges of toxic
materials;
Aff ordability constraints may mean that it is
impractical to apply realistic fi nes above phased
effl uent standards for municipal wastewater
discharges. Under such conditions, it is probably
more realistic to declare a lower level of fi nes,
specifi ed for instance on the basis of discharges
measured in population equivalent (standard
discharge generated per person per day);
Money collected from fees and fi nes should be
invested in water pollution management systems,
e.g. for water treatment, monitoring, or dispersed
trough an environmental fund.
Strengthening Financing
Th ere is a wide range of potential sources for fi nancing.
Options include cash fl ow from user fees, charges
and penalties, international aid, concessions from
multilateral and bilateral agencies, national subsidies,
grants and soft loans (from central government), subsidies
from local and central government budgets, debt
cancellations, commercial loans from local bodies, and
loans from international banks at market rates. A lot
of emphasis has been placed on private investment as
a source of new fi nance for water utilities, and China
has piloted new project fi nance schemes (including
various BOT forms) from the early 1990s, including in
the water sector.
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China Water Quality Management
38
When privatization occurs, most cases involve foreign
participation in operating companies, with asset
ownership remaining in public hands and the public
sector responsible for raising fi nance for new investment.
Th e present situation is that many governments
are resistant to further private involvement in the
water sector, and the leading multinational private
water companies have an increasingly selective attitude
toward overseas exposure. Instead of being a major
source of fi nancing, it is more realistic to regard
multinational private companies as catalysts that
can unlock previously inaccessible sources of funds
through their know-how, benefi cial
impact on projects and institutions, and
through the goodwill that comes with
their involvement.
An appropriate government strategy to
raise initial investment capital would
therefore be to maximize uptake of grants
and soft loans available from international
agencies. Th e government will have
to decide how much of a public subsidy
should be extended to the water sector
to fund “public goods,” and phase out
remaining subsidies as quickly as possible.
Th e government should also decide how
much privatization is desirable / feasible,
where, and of what type, and seek to
attract private partners and organize
long-term international and commercial
loans to cover remaining needs.
Over the long run, the principle of cost
recovery should be one of the basic pillars
of water pollution management in China.
Th is will have a major impact on tariff s,
which in the future might have to cover
the full cost of new investments. Th is
would require the gradual phasing out
of subsidies. Experiences from other
countries in the same situation show
that with increasing tariff s, household
consumption in urban areas is likely to
settle in the range of 120-140 m3 per
capita/day.
Urban Pollution Management
Under conditions of transition from a planned
to a market economy, it is important to avoid the
establishment of unnecessary future excess capacity.
Th e volume of wastewater produced and the chemical
composition of the water might be changed as a result
of increased water tariff s and structural changes
in industry. Future design conditions of various
facilities must not be extrapolated from past data and
needs. Incentives should be used to ensure that water
supply, sewerage, wastewater treatment, and sludge
management are constructed simultaneously and in an
integrated way.
Box 3.3. Financing and Use of Economic Instruments in
Central and Easter European Countries
Central and Eastern European Countries have gone through dramatic economic
transition with fundamental changes in the management of water
pollution (see Box 3.1). Their experiences with respect to economic instruments
and fi nancing are briefl y described here.
Market-based economic instruments have not yet been fully implemented. While
charges and fi nes have been implemented and have increased over time, fees are
generally not high enough to cover the marginal cost of water and wastewater
service provision. The fees have been gradually increased to change the behavior
of users and to improve service performance. Collected fees are often channeled
into environmental funds to be re-distributed for environmental projects by the
state and not used exclusively to support water facilities, though there are also
examples of a combination of the two allocations.
Investments in the water sector are increasing, but more eff ort is needed to achieve
compliance with EU standards and directives. In the more developed CEE countries,
it is estimated that, assuming 15-year implementation plans, water-related
expenditures will be about 1 percent of the GDP. Assuming the principle of cost
recovery is applied for water services, inhabitants should pay about 4-5 percent
of their net income for water supply and treatment. Thus aff ordability is a crucial
issue, and in less-developed CEE countries, the realization of plans will need much
more than the 15 years indicated for richer countries.
Sources of fi nance for investments include national funds, grants, soft loans, EU
aids (often ineffi cient), subsidies, loans from national and international banks, etc.
In many cases the fi nancial plans are weak and the state budget remains important.
The involvement of private investors and operators has not materialized as
expected, and better mechanisms for sound private-public partnership have to
be found.
Pre-conditions for accessing the international sources of fi nancing include:
a) Stable national economies.
b) Well-developed plans, including cost-benefi t calculations and feasibility
studies to justify the investment.
While the region is on the brink of achieving the fi rst condition, many shortcomings
remain in the plans and studies developed for the required investments.
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Policy and Institutional Considerations
39
In large cities and towns, appropriate or alternative
technologies are often not feasible. In these cases, the
only alternative is to consider the phased, step-by-step
development of traditional technologies from mechanical
treatment. Development into more advanced
treatment can then be gradually investigated if necessary,
e.g. chemically enhanced mechanical treatment,
high- and low-load biological treatment, bio-fi lm,
advanced treatment with nutrient removal, etc. Design
of treatment facilities should ensure a certain degree
of fl exibility, so that appropriate technologies can be
incorporated in the future.
Industrial pre-treatment is crucial to avoid problems
with operation and sludge disposal at municipal
plants.
In peri-urban and rural areas, options other than
traditional sanitation should be considered due to the
high costs of installing sewerage networks.
In urban pollution management, the roles and tasks of
the Municipal Environment Protection Bureaus and
Municipal Water Boards need to be clarifi ed.
Th e Municipal Environment Protection Departments
should be in charge of the following tasks:
Drafting water pollution management policies,
laws, regulations and standards, and supervising
and enforcing their implementation.
Organizing the target-setting process; determining
total load control targets; preparing water
pollution management and ecological protection
plans for the main rivers, and supervising their
implementation.
Carrying out monitoring of water quality and pollution
sources, resolving disputes on trans-county
pollution, and compiling/distributing information
from the monitoring activities.
Determining conditions and organizing measures
for protection of drinking water sources against
pollution.
Th e following recommendations are made for the
functions of the Municipal Water Boards:
Administrative, regulatory, and business operation
functions of Municipal Water Boards should be
separated.
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All water enterprises under Municipal Water
Board jurisdiction should be established as
independent economic units.
Industrial Pollution
China has made signifi cant progress in managing
industrial pollution. With the development of new
production technologies, pollution mitigation opportunities
are constantly changing.
In principle, the available funds for pollution treatment
should be allocated to sectors where the greatest
impact can be achieved. It is important to select the
preferred investment sector to gain the socially optimal
eff ect of investments in pollution management. For instance,
the main COD discharge sectors are pulp and
paper production, food processing, chemicals, pharmaceuticals,
breweries, textiles, and the metal smelting
and processing industries. If the average treatment cost
for one ton of COD is compared across sectors (Table
3.1), it is evident that the food processing industry and
the breweries have the lowest cost and thus will be the
sectors where the highest environmental benefi t per
unit investment can be attained.
Wastewater recycling technologies can reduce urban
natural water demand, mitigate water pollution, and
reduce the impact of wastewater on water quality. In
appropriate cases, full treatment of wastewater can be
introduced with the recycled water used in agriculture,
industry, and municipal facilities. In water-defi cient
areas, the water recycling processes should be integrated
into wastewater treatment works.
Legislation should focus on supporting the transfer
of clean technologies, and eff orts should be made to
introduce environmental management systems at the
company level. Cleaner and more effi cient industrial
production should also be a priority for policy makers.
Th e main aim would be to reduce water use, and thus
the level of wastewater discharge per unit product.
Technological innovation with a focus on increasing
water effi ciency should be encouraged. Given the
relatively high levels of COD load compared with
GIOV shares observed in the pulp/paper and food
industries, these sectors would seem like an ideal
starting point. Closed-circuit technologies for water
treatment should be promoted in the iron and steel,
electric power, chemical, and coal industries.
"
China |
|
发表于 2006-11-21 22:51:41
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